International Human Rights: Law, Policy, and Process

Summary of Contents xi

Table of Contents xiii

Preface xxxi

Acknowledgments xli

Contributions xliii


 

 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS


A. BRIEF HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION  2


1. Early Developments 2


2. World War I and the League of Nations 3


3. The Inter-War Years 5


4. World War II and the Beginning of the Modern Human Rights Movement 6
 

 
a. The Nuremberg and Tokyo Tribunals, and Control Council Law No. 10 7

 b. The Creation of the United Nations: Dumbarton Oaks and San Francisco 7

 c. The United Nations and Multilateral Protection of Human Rights 8
 

 
i. Codification 8

 ii. Development of Human Rights Law within the U.N. Structure; Charter-Based Human Rights Bodies 10

iii. Development of Human Rights Law through Six U.N. Treaty-Based Human 

Rights Committees 17
 
 

B. HUMAN RIGHTS IN INTERNATIONAL LAW  17<>
1. The U.N. and International Human Rights Law 17

 

 a. Human Rights under the U.N. Charter 17

 b. International Bill of Human Rights 18

 c. Other U.N. Treaties 18

 d. Related U.N. Instruments 20

 
2. Other Worldwide Treaties and Instruments 20

3. Customary International Law 22

4. Regional Organizations and Law-Making 23

 

 a. European System 24

 b. Inter-American System 24

 c. Organization of African Unity 25

 
5. Domestic Implementation of Human Rights 26



C. CONCLUSION 28


CHAPTER 2: AN EXERCISE IN TREATY-MAKING


A. INTRODUCTION 33


B. DRAFTING EXERCISE 34


C. QUESTIONS 35



CHAPTER 3: AN EXAMPLE OF HUMAN RIGHTS TREATY-MAKING: CHILD SOLDIERS

A. INTRODUCTION 38


B. QUESTIONS 38


C. EVOLUTION OF INTERNATIONAL PROTECTION FOR CHILDREN IN ARMED CONFLICT 40



Declaration of the Rights of the Child (1924) 41



D. THE WORKING GROUP OF THE U.N. COMMISSION ON HUMAN RIGHTS FOR 

THE DRAFTING OF THE CONVENTION ON THE RIGHTS OF THE CHILD  43



Lawrence J. LeBlanc, The Convention on the Rights of the Child: United Nations Lawmaking on Human 

Rights, Drafting the Convention 43



Lawrence J. LeBlanc, The Convention on the Rights of the Child: United Nations Lawmaking on Human 

Rights, Participation in Armed Conflict 45



Adam Lopatka, Report of the Working Group on the draft Convention on the rights of the child 47



E. THE ROLE OF NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS 50



Defence for Children International, Article 38 of the draft Convention on the Rights of the Child and the 

Participation of Children in Armed Conflicts 50



Rddda Barnen (Save the Children Sweden), Ban the Use of Children asSoldiers in Armed Conflicts 52



International League for Human Rights, Human Rights at the United Nations: A New Treaty on 

Children's Rights 54



Martin Macpherson, The Rights of the Child 55



Lawrence J. LeBlanc, The Convention on the Rights of the Child: United Nations Lawmaking on Human 

Rights, Drafting the Convention, Subsequent Consideration of Article 38 57



F. THE WORKING GROUP OF THE U.N. COMMISSION ON HUMAN RIGHTS FOR 

THE DRAFTING OF THE OPTIONAL PROTOCOL 62



Written statement submitted by the Friends World Committee for Consultation 62



Written statement submitted by Human Rights Watch 63



Report of the Working Group on the draft optional protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child 

on involvement of children in armed conflict 65



G. ADOPTION OF THE OPTIONAL PROTOCOL AND FURTHER DEVELOPMENTS

 73



Human Rights Watch, World Report 1999, Child Soldiers (1999) 73



Human Rights Watch, World Report 2000, Child Soldiers (2000) 75



President William J. Clinton, Remarks at the Signing of the Optional Protocol on Children in Armed 

Conflict 81



CHAPTER 4: RATIFICATION AND IMPLEMENTATION OF TREATIES: THE COVENANT ON ECONOMIC, SOCIAL AND CULTURAL RIGHTS

A. INTRODUCTION 84

B. QUESTIONS 84

C. THE COVENANT ON ECONOMIC, SOCIAL AND CULTURAL RIGHTS 85


1. What Are Economic, Social and Cultural Rights? 85


2. Interpreting States' Obligations under the Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural
Rights 88



The Government of South Africa v. Grootboom 93



D. IMPLEMENTATION AND ENFORCEMENT 104



Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 104

Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, Report on the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Sessions 

104



E. RATIFICATION OF TREATIES 110

1. How Do Governments Become Bound? 110



Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties 110



Anne M. Williams, United States Treaty Law 112



2. Reservations 113



Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties 113



Dinah Shelton, International Law 115



3. U.S. Ratification of Human Rights Treaties 117



Nigel S. Rodley, On the Necessity of United States Ratification of theInternational Human Rights 

Conventions 119

 

 a. Genocide Convention 123

 b. Treaty Against Torture 124

 c. Covenant on Civil and Political Rights 125

 d. Racial Convention 127

 e. Women's Convention 128

 f. American Convention 128

 
4. Should the U.S. Ratify the Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights? 134



Philip Alston, U.S. Ratification of the Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights: The Need for 

an Entirely New Strategy 134



5. RatificationWith or Without Qualifications? 142



Four Treaties Pertaining to Human Rights: Message From the President of the United States 142



Burns Weston, U.S. Ratification of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights: 

With or Without Qualifications 145



F. TREATY RATIFICATION IN THE CONTEXT OF GLOBALIZATION 148


CHAPTER 5: STATE REPORTING UNDER INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS TREATIES

A. INTRODUCTION 153

B. QUESTIONS 154

C. REPORTING PROCEDURES 156



1. The Civil and Political Covenant's Human Rights Committee 156

2. Reporting and Consideration Procedures 156

 

 a. The Initial Report 156

 b. Periodic Reports 160

 c. Supplementary Reports 161

 d. Emergency Reports 162

 
3. Distribution of Committee Reports and Comments 163



D. THE SITUATION IN IRAN 167

1. Creation of the Islamic Republic of Iran 167



Amnesty International, Iran: Violations of Human Rights 168



2. Human Rights Committee 171



Human Rights Committee, Consideration of Reports Submitted by States Parties Under Article 40 of the 

Covenant: Iran (1982) 172



Report of the Human Rights Committee, Comments by the Iranian Representative during the 

Committee's examination of the report (1982) 173



Report of the Human Rights Committee, General Comments on Article 7 of the Covenant 174



Human Rights Committee, Consideration of Reports Submitted by States Parties Under Article 40 of the 

Covenant: Iran (1992) 176



Human Rights Committee, Observations and Questions Presented during the Committee's Examination 

of the second Iranian report 

 

 1194th Meeting 177

 1196th Meeting 177

 1230th Meeting 178

 
3. Country Rapporteur Process of the U.N. Commission on Human Rights 179



Report by the Commission's Special Representative on the Human Rights Situation in Iran (1985) 180



4. Iranian Violations of International Law 184



E. THE INTERNATIONAL LAW PROHIBITION OF TORTURE AND OTHER CRUEL, 

INHUMAN OR DEGRADING TREATMENT OR PUNISHMENT 185



Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners 185

Declaration on the Protection of All Persons from Being Subjected to Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman 

or Degrading Treatment or Punishment 186



Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment 186



Body of Principles for the Treatment of Detainees 188



1. Human Rights Committee Consideration of Communications Under the Optional Protocol

 189

 

 a. Committee Procedures 189

 Report of the Human Rights Committee re: Consideration of Communications Under the 

Optional Protocol 189

 b. Committee Jurisprudence 196

 Manfred Nowak, U.N. Covenant on Civil and Political Rights: CCPR Commentary 196

 Human Rights Committee Views on Communication No. 414/1990 197

 
2. European System 200



Ireland v. United Kingdom, European Commission 201



Ireland v. United Kingdom, European Court 202



Tyrer Case, European Court 203



Case of Selmouni v. France, European Court 206



Geneva Conventions of 1949, Common Article 3 209



Restatement (Third) of the Foreign Relations Law of the United States 209



3. U.N. Response to Amputations Under the Islamic Penal Code of Sudan 210



F. THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF HUMAN RIGHTS: NATURAL LAW, 

POSITIVISM, AND ISLAMIC PRINCIPLES 210



Myres S. McDougal, Harold D. Lasswell & Lung-Chu Chen, Human Rights and World Public Order: The 

Basic Policies of an International Law of Human Dignity 211



S. Farooq A. Hassan, The Islamic Republic: Politics, Law and Economy 212



G. CULTURAL RELATIVISM AND INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS LAW 216



Jack Donnelly, Cultural Relativism and Universal Human Rights 216



Nigel Purvis, Critical Legal Studies in Public International Law 218


CHAPTER 6: WHAT U.N. CHARTER-BASED MECHANISMS ARE AVAILABLE FOR VIOLATIONS OF HUMAN RIGHTS?
ECOSOC Resolutions 1235 and 1503; Thematic Procedures

A. INTRODUCTION 228

B. QUESTIONS 229

C. BACKGROUND ON BURMA (MYANMAR) 231



Open Society Institute, Burma: Country in Crisis 231



D. U.N. PROCEDURES FOR RESPONDING TO HUMAN RIGHTS VIOLATIONS 235


1. Development of Major U.N. Procedures 235



ECOSOC Resolution 728F 235

ECOSOC Resolution 1235 237

ECOSOC Resolution 1503 239




2. Overview of Resolution 1503 Procedure in Practice 241


3. Theme Procedures 246



Camille Giffard & Meagan Hrle, The United Nations Charter-Based Mechanisms 252



Report of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention 262



Report by the Special Rapporteur on the right to food 263



Adverse effects of the illicit movement and dumping of toxic and dangerous products and wastes on the 

enjoyment of human rights 264



Civil and Political Rights, Including Religious Intolerance 265



Report of the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and 

expression 265



Report of the Special Rapporteur on the independence of judges and lawyers 266



Civil and Political Rights Including the Questions of Torture and Detention 267



Report of the Special Rapporteur on violence against women, its causes and consequences 

 272




4. Further Remarks on 1235, 1503, Country Rapporteurs, and the Theme Procedures 273



Koen Davidse, The 48th Session of the UN Commission on Human Rights and UN Monitoring of
Violations of Civil and Political Rights 275



Marc Bossuyt, The Development of Special Procedures of the United Nations Commission on Human
Rights 276



Sandra Coliver, U.N. Machineries on Women's Rights 279



Situation of human rights in Myanmar 281





CHAPTER 7: HUMANITARIAN INTERVENTION
A. INTRODUCTION 288

B. QUESTIONS 288

C. U.N. MISSIONS TO MAINTAIN OR RESTORE PEACE AND SECURITY 291



U.N. Charter 291



United Nations, Basic Facts About the United Nations 292



 
1. The Consequences of Somalia and Rwanda 302



U.N. Secretary-General, Supplement to an Agenda for Peace 302




2. Rethinking Peacekeeping After Kosovo 304



U.N. Secretary-General, Address to the Opening Meeting of the United Nations General Assembly 304



U.N. Secretary-General, We the Peoples: The Role of the United Nations in the 21st Century 

 306




3. Growing Experience: Good and Bad Examples 308

David P. Forsythe, Human Rights and International Security: United Nations Field Operations Redux 308




4. How to Do It Better 312

Ian Martin, International Human Rights Field Presence: Past Experience, Current Methodology, Future 

Prospects 312



Daphna Shraga, UN Peacekeeping Operations: Applicability of International Humanitarian Law and 

Responsibility for Operations-Related Damage 316



D. REGIONAL MULTILATERAL INTERVENTION 323


1. ECOWAS's Interventions in Liberia and Sierra Leone 323

Jeremy Levitt, Humanitarian Intervention by Regional Actors in Internal Conflicts: The Cases of 

ECOWAS in Liberia and Sierra Leone 323




2. NATO's Intervention in Kosovo 328

Michael J. Glennon, The New Interventionism: The Search for a Just International Law 331



Thomas M. Franck, Sidelined in Kosovo? The United Nations' Demise Has Been Exaggerated 336



Richard B. Bilder, Kosovo and the "New Interventionism": Promise or Peril? 338




E. UNILATERAL ACTION 345

Richard B. Lillich, A United States Policy of Humanitarian Intervention and Intercession 346



Abraham D. Sofaer, International Law and the Use of Force 349



Tom J. Farer & Christopher C. Joyner, The United States and the Use of Force: Looking Back to See 

Ahead 352



Jules Lobel, Benign Hegemony?Kosovo and Article 2(4) of the U.N. Charter 357

CHAPTER 8:CAN HUMAN RIGHTS VIOLATORS BE HELD ACCOUNTABLE?
A. INTRODUCTION 366

B. QUESTIONS 366

C. RESPONDING TO PAST HUMAN RIGHTS VIOLATIONS 371

Diane F. Orentlicher, Settling Accounts: The Duty to Prosecute Human Rights Violations of a Prior 

Regime 371



Josi Zalaquett, Balancing Ethical Imperatives and Political Constraints: The Dilemma of New 

Democracies Confronting Past Human Rights Violations 375



David Weissbrodt & Paul W. Fraser, Political Transitions and Commissions of Inquiry 377



John Dugard, Reconciliation and Justice: The South African Experience 380



D. NUREMBERG PRINCIPLES 390


1. The Nuremberg and Tokyo Tribunals 390


2. Control Council Law No. 10 and "Minor" Tribunals 391



E. AD HOC INTERNATIONAL TRIBUNALS FOR THE FORMER YUGOSLAVIA AND RWANDA 394



1. The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY) 394

Diane F. Orentlicher, Legal Basis of the Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia 398



2. The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) 399



3. Efficacy of the ad hoc Tribunals 403

Sean D. Murphy, Progress and Jurisprudence of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former 

Yugoslavia 403



Organization of African Unity, Rwanda: The Preventable Genocide 404



Aryeh Neier, Rethinking Truth, Justice, and Guilt after Bosnia and Rwanda 407



F. A PERMANENT INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL COURT 417

Jerry Fowler, The Rome Treaty for an International Criminal Court: A Framework of International Justice 

for Future Generations 418



David J. Scheffer, The United States and the International Criminal Court 423



Bartram S. Brown, U.S. Objections to the Statute of the International Criminal Court: A Brief Response 

 425



President William J. Clinton, Statement on Signature of the International Criminal Court Treaty 429



G. PROSECUTING HUMAN RIGHTS VIOLATORS IN FOREIGN NATIONAL COURTS 

433

Ex parte Pinochet 433



Human Rights Watch, The Pinochet Precedent, How Victims Can Pursue Human Rights Criminals 

Abroad 446



Menno Kamminga, The Exercise of Universal Jurisdiction in Respect of Gross Human Rights Offences 

 451


CHAPTER 9: INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS FACT-FINDING
A. INTRODUCTION 456

B. QUESTIONS 456

C. BACKGROUND: THE DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF CONGO 460


1. History of the Congo 460


2. Fact-finding in the Congo 462

Human Rights Watch, Democratic Republic of Congo: What Kabila Is Hiding 463



D. FACT-FINDING PROCEDURES 465


1. Preparation for an On-Site Investigation 466


2. Methods of On-Site Fact-finding 469


3. Analysis, Verification, Follow-up, and Reporting 480


4. U.S. State Department Country Reports as Fact-finding Exercises 482

Department of State, Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 1999
483



E. EXPERIENCE OF THE INTER-AMERICAN COMMISSION ON HUMAN RIGHTS 485

Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Third Report on the Human Rights Situation in Colombia
485



Thomas Buergenthal, Robert Norris, & Dinah Shelton, Protecting Human Rights in the Americas:
Selected Problems 491



Inter-American Commission, Case 9265 493



Edmundo Vargas, Visits on the Spot: The Experience of the Inter-American Commission on Human
Rights 498



F. FACT-FINDING WITHOUT ON-SITE OBSERVATION 502

Asia Watch & Minnesota Lawyers International Human Rights Committee, Human Rights in the
Democratic People's Republic of Korea 504



G. IMPACT OF FACT-FINDING INVESTIGATIONS 511


1. Todd Howland, Mirage, Magic, or Mixed Bag? The United Nations High Commissioner for
Human Rights' Field Operation in Rwanda 511


2. Assessing the Impact of Fact-finding Investigations 515

Sieglinde Grdnzer, Changing Discourse: Transnational Advocacy Networks in Tunisia and Morocco
516



3. Fact-finding for United States Violations of Human Rights 522


CHAPTER 10: HOW DOES U.S. FOREIGN POLICY INFLUENCE HUMAN RIGHTS IN OTHER COUNTRIES?


A. INTRODUCTION 526

B. QUESTIONS 526

C. INTERNATIONAL DUTIES 528


1. U.S. Duties as a U.N. member-nation 528

 a. The U.N. Charter 528

 b. International Human Rights Treaties 529

D. INCORPORATING HUMAN RIGHTS GOALS INTO U.S. FOREIGN POLICY: FROM 

JIMMY CARTER TO GEORGE W. BUSH 530


1. The Origins of Human Rights in U.S. Foreign Policy 530


2. The Creation of General Legislation and the Helsinki Commission 530


3. Implementing General Human Rights Legislation Under the Carter Administration 532

Jimmy Carter, Remarks Commemorating the 30th Anniversary of the Signing of the Universal 

Declaration of Human Rights 532


4. A New Theme for Human Rights Foreign Policy: Promoting Democracy Abroad 537

Ronald Reagan, Speech to the House of Commons 537


5. The End of the Cold War 542

James Baker, Secretary of State, Hearing of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee 542


6. Harmonizing Human Rights With Democracy-Building and Economic Development 544

Madeleine Albright, Press Briefing on the Release of Country Reports on Human Rights Practices
545


7. A New View or More of the Same? 551



E. DEFINING AND IMPLEMENTING U.S. HUMAN RIGHTS FOREIGN POLICY 552


1. The Role of the Administration 552

 

 a. Diplomatic Efforts and Efficacy 552

 

 David D. Newsom, The Diplomacy of Human Rights: A Diplomat's View 553

 
 

2. Legislation and the Congressional Role 556

 

 a. Country-Specific Legislation 557

 b. Legislation and the Presidential Role: Certification Requirements 558

 c. "Carrot" Legislation 558

 d. Legislation Creating Special Commissions 559

 e. Legislation Regarding Use of "Voice and Vote" in International Financial Institutions 

560

 f. Other Congressional Tools 562

 
3. Economic Sanctions 564

Stuart Eizenstat, Under Secretary for Economic, Business, and Agricultural Affairs 564


 CHAPTER 11: THE INTER-AMERICAN SYSTEM AND THE INTERPRETATION AND APPLICATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS INSTRUMENTS


The Martinez Case and the Inter-American Commission



A. INTRODUCTION 578

B. QUESTIONS 578

C. THE MARTINEZ CASE 579

D. LAW GOVERNING SELF-DETERMINATION AND DISCRIMINATION AGAINST WOMEN 583


1. International Law 583

American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man 583



American Convention on Human Rights 583



Charter of the Organization of American States 584



Protocol of Buenos Aires 584



Convention concerning Indigenous and Tribal Peoples in Independent Countries (ILO No. 169) 

 584



Proposed American Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples 585



Draft Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples 587



Inter-American Convention on the Prevention, Punishment and Eradication of Violence Against Women 

 589




2. U.S. Law 590



E. THE INTER-AMERICAN COMMISSION 591


1. Procedures of the Inter-American Commission  591

The Human Rights Situation of the Indigenous People in the Americas 591


2. Jurisprudence of the Inter-American Commission 598

 

 a. Does the American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man Apply to the United States? 598

 b. Cases Involving Indigenous Rights 600


 

3. Typical Cases in the Inter-American Commission 604



F. ADVISORY AND CONTENTIOUS JURISDICTION OF THE INTER-AMERICAN COURT OF HUMAN RIGHTS 608

Thomas Buergenthal, The Inter-American Court of Human Rights 608



Thomas Buergenthal, The Advisory Practice of the Inter-American Human Rights Court 612



G. INTER-AMERICAN JURISPRUDENCE CONCERNING AMNESTY LAWS 615

H. OTHER REGIONAL SYSTEMS 617

1. The Organization of African Unity 617

2. Other Regional Structures 620


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